Small Firm Internationalization and Business Strategy

Question: Discuss about the Small Firm Internationalization and Business Strategy. Answer: Introduction The paper focuses on reflecting on the concepts associated to globalisation and internationalisation while also discussing on the differences and similarity between the different concepts. The paper would also focus on evaluating the impacts of globalisation and internationalisation on the business institutions. The institutional and resource based theories of business environment would also be discussed in the paper while also analysing the implications of managers in the global environment. Globalisation and Internationalisation The term globalisation rightly identifies the process through which different economies around the globe can be effectively integrated. The development and incorporation of internet and information technology resources potentially contributes in the generation of economic liberalisation on a global scale. The advent of globalisation is also observed to encourage the dominance of westernised political, economical and cultural scenario on the developing and emerging world economies(Ch. et al., 2011). Globalisation thus also contributes in the generation of concepts like Americanisation and Westernisation. Again, the aspect of globalisation contributing to the development of a free market economic system also helps in unifying the different global economies thereby reducing the emergence of social conflicts(Irani Noruzi, 2011). Internationalisation Internationalisation in sharp contrast to globalisation earns its emergence in the eastern context. Internationalisation as a concept thus focuses on the advancement and growth of cognitive abilities in human beings in terms of realising the bonds existing between different human cultures and values that constitute diverse human societies(DE WIT, 2011). Further, the aspect of internationalisation also centres on the parameters of cooperation and collaboration between the members belonging to the different humanistic societies and also associated with the caring and sharing functions between the different social members. Internationalisation is also observed to be the response reflected by the different economies subsequently on the impacts generated by globalisation. It however focuses on sustaining the individuality of the different nations or economies(Fok, 2007). Differentiation between Globalisation and Internationalisation The aspect of globalisation tends to create and enhance the level of interdependence between the different global economies while internationalisation focuses more on restoring the individuality of the different economies around the world. The development of the means of transport and communication technology on a global scale makes the emergence of globalisation as an inevitable circumstance while the emergence of internationalisation as a concept is observed more to be need based and involuntary in nature. Internationalisation contributes in enhancing the use of any device or product owing to the existence of a common language or cultural norms(Andersson et al., 2014). On the contrary, globalisation focuses on formulating a strategy that helps in promoting a product or service in the global marketplace. The action involves the use of potential sales and marketing strategies that would contribute in effectively marketing and promoting the product or service at the global marketplace . Further, internationalisation also reflects the involvement of staffs like software developers, producers and also the generators of digital contents. The globalisation activities are more concerned with the involvement of marketing and sales personnel(Knight, 2004). Similarity of Globalisation and Internationalisation Globalisation and internationalisation are observed to be concepts that are interlinked and mutually adaptable. Internationalisation contributes in formulating idea of globalisation and also contributes in operating as an effective agent of globalisation. The close relationship between globalisation and internationalisation can be observed owing to the faster and increased progress of globalisation in the economic paradigm, emergence and growth of new technology and also the increase in frequency of cultural exchanges between the different economies(Huang et al., 2013). Impact of Globalisation and Internationalisation The impact of globalisation in the tourism industry as a case reflects increased flow of tourists among specific regions owing to cultural exchanges and also the development of innovative tourist attractions and spots. On the environmental front, the impact of globalisation activities are studied based on the chances of using alternative resources or fuels, the development of programs enhances environmental awareness and also the conducting of effective environmental and urban planning activities. Moreover, globalisation impact on the natural environment also signifies the generation of sustainable development, preservation of the natural habitat and also the optimal utilisation of land resources(Edwin Okpara, 2015). Similarly, the advent of globalisation also contributes in the development of a global cultural identity and also the development of a political system encouraging the entry of multinationals in the region. This also calls for growth of further safety and security measu res that are needed to be undertaken in the global markets. Finally, the advent of globalisation also contributes in increasing the level of competitiveness among the business institutions having branches and also operational along different international markets(Mihajlovi? KrÃ… ¾elj ?olovi?, 2014). Impact of Internationalisation Internationalisation of business activities are mainly conducted along different stages outlined as under. The initial stage concerning the development of international business relates to internationalising the trading of inventories. Business or commercial transactions conducted on an international scale by the business institutions ideally contribute in internationalising the scale of business operations. The export and import of merchandises by companies contribute in internationalising the trading activities. Internationalisation of business activities also relate to the development of effective alliances with international supplier groups and also the licensing and transfer of global technology and know-how(Bell et al., 2004). Business Environment Institutional Business Environment The institutional environment of a business organisation are essentially constituted by laws and regulations concerning the acquisition of different types of property resources, licensing of business operations, recruiting of employees and also the rules and regulations governing the importing and exporting activities conducted by the firms. Similarly, it also includes the development of contracts with supplier firms and also rules governing the generation of taxes and also licenses and fees(Ibrahim Primiana, 2015). Resource Based Environment The resource based view of competitive advantage for business institutions can be effectively understood from the following illustration. The above illustration reflects the different types of tangible and intangible resources that are employed by the business institutions for gaining of needed competitive advantage. The resources whether tangible or intangible in nature need to fulfil the attributes as indicated by VRIO (valuable, rate, inimitability and also the organisational structure and policies) for helping in the accomplishment of competitive advantage in a sustained fashion(Morrison, 2011). Business institutions face considerable challenges in their endeavour to operate in a global environment. Differences in Compliances and Regulatory Climate Business institutions endeavouring to expand their operations along the global environment are required to effectively adapt to the changes in the regulatory and legislative climate of the different regions around the world. Differences in legislations and regulations associated with export and import, taxation laws and also along in the dimension of human resource and pension schemes require the managers and owners of business institutions to rightly comply with such for conducting business activities. The existence of different types of environmental regulations in diverse regions requires the business institutions to design effective recycling and waste disposal programs. Similarly, the business institutions are also required to incorporate energy efficient lighting and cooling systems for meeting the sustainability and cost reduction objectives(Edwin Okpara, 2015). Changes in the cultural and linguistic dimensions The business institutions operating on a global scale are also observed to face considerable challenges owing to existence of different types of cultures and languages. The existence of diverse languages affects the level of communication between the staffs thereby creating problems in the conducting of business operations. The business managers are also required to understand and respect the cultural paradigms of the different nations such that the same helps in reduction of internal conflict and in meeting business and organisational objectives in an effective fashion(Ibrahim Primiana, 2015). Implications for Managers The organisational managers requiring operating in a globalised and internationalist business environment are required to operate in a flexible fashion based on adaptation of new business cultures and also through understanding the needs and expectations of global consumers. Further, the organisational managers are also required to formulate effective strategies for employing a diverse workforce. The managers are required to focus on the development of training programs for enhancing the skill and knowledge base of the workers such that the same would help them to operate in a multicultural framework. Generation of different types of policies relating to work-life balance would also help in encouraging the staffs for generation of effective productivity(Ch. et al., 2011). Conclusions Effective analysis was carried out in the paper regarding the impact of globalisation and internationalisation on business institutions and the implications of managers thereof. Further, conceptual discussions related to the characteristics of institutional and resource based environment are also rendered in the paper along with the generation of a summarised understanding of globalisation and internationalisation. References Andersson, S., Evers, N. Kuivalainen, O., 2014. International new ventures: rapid internationalization across different industry contexts. European Business Review, 26(5), pp.390-405. Bell, J., Crick, D. Young, S., 2004. Small Firm Internationalization and Business Strategy. International Small Business Journal, 22(1), pp.23-56. Ch., M.A., Faheem, M.A. Dost, M.K.B., 2011. Globalization and its Impacts on the World Economic Development. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(23), pp.291-97. DE WIT, H., 2011. Globalisation and Internationalisation of Higher Education. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento (RUSC), 8(2), pp.241-48. Edwin, A. Okpara, A., 2015. Strategic review of the impact of globalization on the sustainability of communities and business organisations. International Journal of Business and Management Invention, 4(4), pp.55-62. Fok, W.-k.P., 2007. Internationalisation of higher education in Hong Kong. International Education Journal, 8(1), pp.184-93. Huang, F., Finkelstein, M.J. Rostan, M., 2013. The Internationalization of the Academy: Changes, Realities and Prospects. United Kingdom : Springer Science and Business Media. Ibrahim, R. Primiana, I., 2015. Influence Business Environment On The Organization Performance. International Journal Of Scientific Technology Research, 4(4), pp.283-93. Irani, F.N.H.A. Noruzi, M.R., 2011. Globalization and Challenges; What are the globalization's contemporary issues? International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(1), pp.216-18. Knight, J., 2004. Internationalization Remodeled: Definition, Approaches, and Rationales. Journal of Studies in International Education, 8(5), pp.5-31. Mihajlovi?, I. KrÃ… ¾elj ?olovi?, Z., 2014. The impact of globalisation on the development of tourism within social and economic changes. European Scientific Journal. Morrison, J., 2011. The Global Business Environment: Meeting the Challenges. United Kingdom : Palgrave Macmillan.

The Peculiarities of Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory The main aspects of the social learning theory also known as the social cognitive theory were developed by Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel in the 20th century. The theory is based on three main concepts and their correlation. These concepts are personality, environment, and behavior (Bandura, 1997). That is why the theory depends on the social perspectives and the ideas of behaviorists (Filingeri, 2011).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Peculiarities of Social Learning Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to the theory, while observing definite models of behaviors, a person can think them over and behave in relation to these models. Thus, a man learns these behaviors in the social context (environment) and imitates them in his behavior. Moreover, the environmental and cognitive factors are in a constant interaction and the other people’s models of behavior influence our reactions, attitudes, and actions (Bandura, 1997). This theory can be considered as credible with references to its main notions of reciprocal determinism and self-efficacy. Thus, many psychologists support the idea that an individual’s behavior is predominantly influenced by the environment and the interactions with other people and by personal traits which should be analyzed in their connection and interdependence. Mischel also adds such cognitive factors as expectancies, personal values and goals for forming the behavior (Filingeri, 2011). The social cognitive theory accounts for such aspects of personality as cognition (observation, analysis) and social behaviour according to definite models. Nevertheless, it does not include biological and hormonal factors which can influence the person’s attitude to the environment and his behavior without depending on the social context (Filingeri, 2011). That is why such major concepts of the social learning theor y as the idea that people can learn through observation and the impact of knowledge on the behavior can be argued. In their work, Cervone and Pervin accentuate that the aspects of the social cognitive theory developed by Bandura were too generalized with focusing on the average person and without paying attention to the variables in personalities. However, Mischel improved the description of the theory with working out the concepts of the variation patterns in the personal behaviour. Nevertheless, the social cognitive theory is still discussed as mainly basing on social aspects on which the cognitive factors depend without explaining the innate motivations for the actions (Cervone Pervin, 2010). Trait Theory In their researches, Gordon Allport and Hans Eysenck developed the opinion that a personality and the peculiarities of his or her behavior can be described with the help of discussing those traits which prevail in this personality (Filingeri, 2011). According to Allport’ s point of view, a trait can be considered as a stable characteristic of a personality (Allport, 2011).Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that traits can be common (inherited, typical for all people) as well as unique (the features of their realization in the personal character). To analyze the peculiar features of traits and their influence on a personality, Allport determined three levels of the realization of traits in the personal character which are cardinal, central, and secondary traits (Allport, 2011). The main advantage of the theory is in the fact that it depends on the innate personal characteristics without focusing primarily on the social context, but considering it as the conditions for presenting the reactions. However, the discussion of five main aspects of personality or five main traits with their va riables as the main concepts of the trait theory (the Big Five) limited the theoretical considerations to the situation of analyzing the personality only according to these five traits without discussing the social context as the influential aspect. Thus, these major traits are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, openness to experience, and dependability (Filingeri, 2011). In spite of the fact the trait theory accounts for personal physical, moral, and behavioral characteristics, they are considered as not equal in determining the personal behavior or reactions. The main accent is made on the moral aspect when the physical characteristic only accentuates the inherited nature of traits, and the behavioral factor is only necessary for understanding the realization the traits (Allport, 2011). Nevertheless, the investigations on the issues of the trait theory were conducted with basing on the examination of the peculiarities of the language and the usage of verbal characterization s for personalities and their traits, not the personal behavior (Filingeri, 2011). That is why this theory lacks the practical support for its main concepts. It is impossible to explain the impulsive and situational personal actions which cannot be considered as the part of the personality of this or that man with references to this theory. Thus, the theory does not account for immediate personal behaviors and reactions which are affected by the outside conditions (Filingeri, 2011). Evaluating the comprehensiveness of the trait theory, Cervone and Pervin concentrate on such aspects that the theory is rather inappropriate for explaining all the personality aspects because it focuses only on some of them. Moreover, it is impossible to consider a personality only according to his or her stable traits because the personality can change with the situation, and the theory does not discuss the causes for behavior which cannot be explained with focusing only on several traits of character ( Cervone Pervin, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Peculiarities of Social Learning Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Allport, G. (2011). Concepts of trait and personality. USA: Cambridge University Press. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy in changing societies. USA: Cambridge University Press. Cervone, D., Pervin, L.A. (2010). Personality: Theory and research. USA: Wiley. Filingeri, V. S. (2011). Comprehensive review of psychology. USA: First Edition Design. This research paper on The Peculiarities of Social Learning Theory was written and submitted by user Kaylen Y. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Becoming a pshychologist essays

Becoming a pshychologist essays I have always wondered about human behavior. Why does this person scream when he is angry? Why does that person cry? Whenever I see someone who looks confused or discouraged, I sometimes wonder what the disturbance is and if there is anything I could do that would inspire them. I think this is why I want to be a psychologist. I would love to learn all about the way people act, think and feel and at the same time try to help them. I have a very easygoing personality and I love to have fun and laugh. I ask a lot of questions, and I think I am very easy to get along with. Some career goals I have are to graduate high school and go to college. I'm not quite sure yet which college, but I plan to earn a Master's degree or a Doctoral degree in school psychology. I would like to find a job I want to keep that I could make a career out of, and just take one day at a time with desire to make the right decisions and live a pleasant life. I first became interested in psychology a couple years ago. My friend and I were sitting at the park, and we started talking. Well, we ended up chatting for hours about some things that she had been going through, and when the conversation ended, she thanked me. She said, "Thanks for your help, it really meant a lot to me." The feeling I had was just simply awesome. I felt like I had made a difference, and that's what I would like to spend the rest of my life doing. That was just the first time I had talked to someone as I did. After that I conversed with other people. I talked to other friends, my parents, even just saying hi to strangers on the street or at the store and putting a smile on their face made me feel satisfaction. Most of my friends know that if they really need someone to talk to, my door is always open, and I will always listen. I think psychology would be a good career for me because I enjoy the kind of work that they do, and I think I could be good at it if I really ...

Effect of Visual Communication on Businesses Essay

Effect of Visual Communication on Businesses - Essay Example "We exist in a visual culture. The importance of reading and interpreting signs has become a rapidly increasing concern in recent years. This book offers an intricate theoretical perspective regarding the study of visual communication and expands the academic arena for debate concerning the visual. 'The significance of Jamieson's book is that it addresses the subject of the visual arts from this wider vantage point. For Jamieson, the visual arts reveal visual communication as the means by which the body and its organs communicate with its surrounding forms.' (Professor Robert Cooper, Keele University) Worth S in Studying Visual Media expresses it as "The central thread that runs through Sol Worth's research and writings is the question of how meaning is communicated through visual images. Coming to academic life after careers in painting, photography, and filmmaking, Worth was imbued with the conviction that visual media were forms of communication that, while fundamentally different from speech, could and must be seriously examined as ways by which human beings create and share meanings." The powerful effects of this visual media of communication grew faster in the 21 century due to the ubiquitous ness of the computers and the internet. Fast paced life and neck by neck business competition made businessmen and Commercial intelligentsia aware of its powerful impact on consumers and citizens of the global world. Communication was always important means of reaching out to people but the digital technology and the revolutionised electronics have not only made life swifter but also made it essential for everyone to stay connected in order to survive in the pace of globalisation and dissolving geographical boundaries in this century.Anything that is easier, faster and effective to understand and tell is the fundamental aim of every means and mode of communication today. Visual communication thus paved its way into nooks and corners of daily lives of all who walk on the earth in the modern world. From domestic to diversified sectors of business, media, commerce, health, religion, or any faculty of society, visual communication has now become a supreme form of effective communication. Corporate offices and Multinational companies have realised the importance of reaching out to their consumers. Visual communication through graphics, designs and signage has surpassed all barricades of language as a means of communication today. A visual graphic needs neither reading nor learning as it is easy to comprehend by sheer vision. Hence it has gained immeasurable popularity in the daily world including the world of business communication. Research in visual communication has proved the magnified influence of this form of communication and there is very little doubt of its becoming a panacea of top business strategies. In Visual Communication: Images with Messages Lester (California State University) "explores how the brain

Accounting, Decisions and Accountability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Accounting, Decisions and Accountability - Essay Example This certainly provided some help to dwindling liquidity and working capital finance of the company. The company is not even in a position to maintain a better interest coverage. Gross profitability showed some recovery signs in 2007 but the initiative was taken away by overheads and other non-operative expenditure resulting into very marginal net margin recoveries before taxes and interests (EBIT). Though net margin evaluation has been based on EBIT, it is necessary to point out that even such small recovery was taken away by interest, taxes and extraordinary items, and finally the year 2007 turned into a huge loss year. The detailed analysis here in this writes up shows that company is facing more difficulties than the available opportunities. Chia Liang Chu inherited 200,000 shares in Sing Chip Ltd. from her grand mother. The inheritance put her in dilemma of keeping or selling the shares. Accordingly a financial analysis was required of the financial statements of Sing Chip Ltd., before any recommendation could be put forward to Chia Liang Chu. Three years financial statements have been analyzed in this write up using financial ratios as method of analysis. The analysis have been made to evaluate, profitability, liquidity, and financial stability (solvency) of the company, considering its performances over a period of three years, in order to arrive at logical conclusion, so that a proper recommendation is made to Chia Liang Chu. Profitability of an entity is viewed from two different angles. One is profitability in relation to turnover or sales, and other is profitability in relation to investment. From the point of view of sales, profit is considered by calculating Gross profit ratio and Net profit ratio. In relation to investments, profitability is considered as per rate of return on equity or the ROE, and profitability as per return on assets or ROA. Gross Profit ratio is defined as

Analysis of Marks and Spencer Group PLC

Analysis of Marks and Spencer Group PLC The principal activities of the company are retailing clothing, food and home products. Marks Spencer operates in the secondary and tertiary sectors. It operates in the secondary sector as it manufactures finished goods and it is associated with textile production. It operates majorly in the tertiary sector as it provides goods and services to the population and to other businesses. A group of companies is one which consists of two or more companies between which there is a parent/subsidiary relationship and they are usually under the same ownership and maybe management. The group balance sheet will differ from that of the company since it includes the total of each individual company balance sheet of all the companies together us one compared to the company balance sheet which includes all the transactions of the company. i) total assets  £7258.1 millions total liabilities  £5157.5 millions net assets  £2100.6 millions ii) The difference between the total assets and the total liabilities is the net assets which can be also called as the groups capital. When you add the fixed assets with the current assets and then subtract the current liabilities from the Balance sheet, the total that you write down is called Net Assets. i) profit after tax (52 weeks ended 28 March 2009)  £506.8 millions (52 weeks ended 29 March 2008)  £821.0 millions Net profit margin 2009 5.6% 2008 9.1% ii) The net profit margin has significantly fell because of the exceptional costs incurred to the firm during the current accounting period due to the economic recession that affected considerably the markets MS operates in. The firm had to spend  £135.9 millions on exceptional costs, due to a change in its strategies, compared to 2008 when it had no exceptional costs. i) MS uses straight line method which is a method that allocates the amount to be depreciated evenly over the useful life of the asset. Some of MSs uses of depreciation are the following: Freehold land not depreciated Freehold and leasehold buildings with a remaining lease term over 50 years depreciated to their residual value over their estimated remaining economic lives Leasehold buildings with a remaining lease term of less than 50 years over the remaining period of the lease Fixtures, fittings and equipment 3 to 25 years according to the estimated life of the asset. ii) The straight-line method of depreciation is a method that allocates the amount to be depreciated evenly over the useful life of the asset. For example for something with a total cost of  £500 and an estimated useful life of 5 years, using the straight-line method, the annual depreciation charge will be  £100. On the other hand the reducing balance method is the method in which the depreciation is expressed as a fixed percentage on the reducing balance of an asset. In simpler words the amount of depreciation gets reduced every year. For an asset of a total cost of  £500, using the reducing balance method by 20%,it means that the value of the asset will decrease 20% of its value each year. After year 1, the net book value will be  £400 and then for the next year the value will drop to  £320 and so on. iii) Property, Plant and Equipment as at 29/3/2009  £4.834.0 millions (a)  £725.1 millions straight line depreciation (b)  £1450.2 millions reducing balance depreciation iv) By using the straight-line method of depreciation the reported profit of the group will be reduced by about  £400 million as depreciation is placed under the expenses category in the income statement and it will also be deducted from the assets current value in the balance sheet. On the other hand, by using the 30% reducing balance method, profit will decrease even more and the assets value on the balance sheet will be reduced even more. The more depreciation they charge the less net profit they get for the current period. i)  £285.2 millions ii)1371.9/365=3.76 millions/day 285.2/3.76à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 76 days worth of sales. iii) The ratio of trade debtors and customers to sales is about 20%. This seems quite high but for such a large company like Marks and Spencer, which generates so much cash from operations (sales), is not much of a concern. However it would be better for the company to try and minimize this ratio in the next years. Stewardship accounting is the provision of information by managers to owners for the purpose of avoiding a potential conflict between managers and owners. Directors act as agents of the shareholders, or as stewards on their behalf. The stewardship function requires directors to act in the best interests of the company at all times. Where shareholders are remote from the management of their company there is potential for the directors to take action that benefits themselves rather than benefiting the shareholders. This is one of the potential problems of the stewardship relationship. If directors wish to manipulate financial information they are well placed to do so. Shareholders can be assured that the annual financial information they receive has not been distorted by requiring an audit by an independent auditor. Until recently all companies were required to have an audit of their annual financial statements. i) current Ratio= Current Assets/ Current Liabilities = 1389.8/2306.9= 0.60:1 Quick Ratio= (Current Assets- Stock and prepayments)/ Current liabilities = (1389.8-536.0)/2306.9=0.37:1 ii) The current ratio and the quick ratio are both liquidity ratios. They are commonly used to assess the liquidity of a business. As a general rule, a current ratio of 1.5 or greater can meet near-term operating needs sufficiently. A higher current ratio can suggest that a company is hoarding assets instead of using them to grow the business not the worst thing in the world, but its something that could affect long-term returns. The Quick Ratio is a much more exacting measure than the Current Ratio. By excluding inventories, it concentrates on the really liquid assets, with value that is fairly certain. An acid-test of 1:1 is considered satisfactory unless the majority of your quick assets are in accounts receivable, and the pattern of accounts receivable collection lags behind the schedule for paying current liabilities. i)There are many factors that determine the share prices but only some factors can directly influence them. One of these factors is demand and supply. The price is directly affected by the trend of stock market trading. When more people are buying a certain stock, the price increases and when more people are selling the stock, the price falls. Secondly news is a huge factor that influences the shares price. Positive news about a company can increase buying interest in the market while negative news can decrease it. It is the overall performance of the company that matters more than news. The earning per share is the profit that the company made on the last quarter and it is also a huge factor that can affect the share prices. Every public company needs to publish a quarterly report that states the earning per share. By this way they influence the buying tendency in the market resulting in the increase in the price of that particular share. So, one needs to watch on the quarterly reports of the companies and before buying any shares. ii) MarksSpencer Share prices My evaluation of Marks and Spencers performance thus far for this current accounting period is positive. First of all the company uses a long term plan and any short term decreases in revenues or profits is acceptable. The profit margin ratio has increased in 2009 from 13.43% to 23.45% so despite the recession MS managed to increase its profit margin. On the other hand the earning per share has decreased for 2009 from  £0.49 to  £0.32 per share. Though the profit margin has increased the earning per share has decreased and that is not positive for us investors. The firm might have a long term plan that is indeed promising but thus far this season we investors are concerned about the effect of the recession on the firm and more specifically on our earnings per share.

Computer Generated Evidence in Court :: Computers Technology Courtroom Essays

Computer Generated Evidence in Court Introduction We are living in what is usually described as an 'information society' and as the business community makes ever greater use of computers the courts are going to find that increasingly the disputes before them turn on evidence which has at some stage passed through or been processed by a computer. In order to keep in step with this practice it is vital that the courts are able to take account of such evidence. As the Criminal Law Revision Committee recognised, 'the increasing use of computers by the Post Office, local authorities, banks and business firms to store information will make it more difficult to prove certain matters such as cheque card frauds, unless it is possible for this to be done from computers' (CLRC 1972, para 259). Admissibility The law of evidence is concerned with the means of proving the facts which are in issue and this necessarily involves the adduction of evidence which is then presented to the court. The law admits evidence only if it complies with the rules governing admissibility. Computer output is only admissible in evidence where special conditions are satisfied. These conditions are set out in detail in section 69 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 1984 (see further Nyssens 1993, Reed 1993 and Tapper 1993). In general the principles of admissibility are that the evidence must be relevant to the proof of a fact in issue, to the credibility of a witness or to the reliability of other evidence, and the evidence must not be inadmissible by virtue of some particular rule of law (Keane 1994, pp 15-20; Tapper 1990, pp 51- 61). Real evidence usually takes the form of some material object (including computer output) produced for inspection in order that the court may draw an inference from its own observation as to the existence, condition or value of the object in question. Although real evidence may be extremely valuable as a means of proof, little if any weight attaches to it unless accompanied by testimony which identifies the object in question and explains its connection with, or significance in relation to, the facts in issue or relevant to the issue. This is illustrated in the case of R v Wood (1982) 76 Cr App R 23 where the appellant was convicted of handling stolen metals. In order to prove that metal found in his possession and metal retained from the stolen consignment had the same chemical composition cross-checking was undertaken and the figures produced were subjected to a laborious mathematical process in order that the percentage